Secretary of State in the Age of Expansion

Nature has given the use of the Mississippi to those who may settle on its waters, as she gave to the U.S. their independence.

James Madison to the Marquis de Lafayette, March 20, 1785

At the turn of the 19th century, the United States' population was bursting at its seams. In January 1803, President Thomas Jefferson secretly called upon his Cabinet to help develop a plan for exploration beyond the muddy waters of the Mississippi. James Madison, his secretary of state, was given the task of coordinating negotiations for more land from King Ferdinand VII of Spain; Napoleon Bonaparte, First Consul of France; Alexander I of Russia; and King George III of England. Madison worked with American dignitaries to negotiate navigation rights to the Mississippi River, a right of deposit in the port of New Orleans, and safe passage to the Pacific Ocean through Native-American and foreign-controlled territories in North America.

By January 1803, a historic chain of events set into motion a tidal wave of change — one that would revolutionize the course of U.S. history. While Jefferson's political and private reasons were not always in sync, he never varied in his determination to discover a route to the Pacific. Jefferson's public claim was for the need of increased commerce on the Mississippi, but privately he and Madison firmly believed in western expansion for an ideal agrarian society.

The shape of the United States changed with the stroke of a pen, and from that point forward the country began to expand with a tide of American explorers and settlers — all surging west. The purchase of Louisiana in 1803 gave President Jefferson a perfect, and legal, opportunity to send American explorers out from St. Louis, across the "Rock Mountains" and up the Missouri, Snake, and Columbia Rivers. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were selected to co-lead the expedition because of their expertise and knowledge. Their explorations produced an enormous amount of biological, geographical, and scientific data. Jefferson and Madison were wed to the premise that nothing could, or should, stop Americans from reaching the Pacific Ocean in their quest for land, natural resources, and personal liberties.

The Louisiana Purchase

Every eye in the U.S. is now fixed on this affair of Louisiana.

Jefferson to Livingston, April 18, 1802.

The Louisiana Territory was ceded to Spain from France in 1762, but by 1800 the land was reclaimed by France in the Treaty of Idelfonso. In 1801, when Jefferson and Madison heard rumors of this treaty, they sent Charles Pinckney to Spain, and Robert Livingston to France to negotiate for a small portion of land along the Mississippi River, thus securing passage to New Orleans. President Jefferson feared that if French troops took possession of the port, "we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation" against Napoleon's military power. Jefferson did not want to become too allied with England, his country's old nemesis.

When negotiations stalled, Madison sent James Monroe over to complete the deal with Napoleon. France, in debt and encumbered elsewhere, offered approximately 900,000 square miles of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000; roughly $44.00 an acre. Spain, considering this action as a break of the Treaty of Idelfonso, considered retaliation against France, but a lack of military strength and funds prevented any action other than written reprimands. King Ferdinand VII of Spain, who had little choice in the matter, reluctantly approved the purchase.

On December 8, 1803, Secretary of State Madison received written confirmation of the sale from his agents in New Orleans, "we announce to you the peaceful Transfer of the Province of Louisiana by the Commissioners of Spain." Twelve days later, official representatives William C.C. Claiborne and James Wilkinson accepted transfer of Louisiana from French authorities in New Orleans. Immediately after the nation's flags were exchanged, Claiborne became the Governor of Louisiana and Wilkinson became its military commander. In March 1804, another ceremony took place in St. Louis and control of the Mississippi was at last in the hands of the U.S. government.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

"On May 14, 1804 Lewis and Clark set out on the expedition which became an 'enterprise of many aims and a product of many minds.'"

— D. Jackson, editor, "The Letters of Lewis & Clark," 1978

Madison's role in the Lewis and Clark expedition was simple — secure the purchase of territory west of the Mississippi so that any explorations henceforth would be legal. Today, when asked what Madison did for the expedition, many claim that he "wrote the check" that launched the Corps of Discovery's 28-month journey — and in a way, he did just that. Secretary of State Madison oversaw territorial affairs, and as such, was responsible for signing Lewis and Clark's paychecks and reimbursements for sundries procured along the trail.

"One Uniform laced Coat, one silver Epaulet, one Dirk, and belt, one hanger and belt, one pistol and one fowling piece, all private property in exchange for Canoe, Horses and c. for public service during the expedition - $135."

— Meriwether Lewis to Madison, March, 1806

It was late spring of 1803 before the planning was completed and all of the necessary equipment and personnel were procured. Even the ladies of Washington lent a hand to acquire much of the needed material and supplies for the expedition. Dolley Madison was among Washington's society women who gave of their silver utensils, cloth for sacks, wax for candles, lamps, oil, spices for cooking, canned goods, dried goods, writing accouterments, and clothing.

"...a great deal of interest was taken by the cabinet and especially the ladies. They were much entertained and ere their departure on their perilous journey, souvenirs were sent them, and they were fitted up with Camp equipage and every thing thought to be suitable for them..."

"Mrs. Madison, with her usual sympathy was very much distressed for she believed they never could return from that land of savages — however they did return after an absence of four years. Full of hair breath escapes and marvelous adventures and as many specimens as they could bring from so far off in the wilderness!"

— Mary E. E. Cutts' Memoirs, ca. 1850

"The Captains" named rivers and streams for members of the Corps, their friends, family and some government officials. When the company reached the headwaters of the Missouri in July 1805, they honored President Jefferson, Secretary of State Madison, and Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin by naming the three tributaries that made up the Missouri after the statesmen. The Madison River Valley is almost as wild and untamed today as it was 150 years ago.

Twenty-eight months after the corps started their journey, they returned to Washington laden with gifts from Native-American dignitaries, samples of flora and fauna collected along the route, and notebooks filled with scientific data. President Jefferson, excited by the depth of knowledge gained by this trip, began to send other explorers west. This "great unknown" was the next, and possibly greatest, frontier—and thousands of Americans were ready to risk life and limb to obtain a piece of it. Lewis and Clark opened the west, and America was changed forever.