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The Naming Project: William (Billey) Gardner

What We Know About William Gardner

William (Billey) Gardner may have been the only enslaved person from Montpelier to gain freedom during James Madison’s lifetime.

Gardner was the son of “old” Anthony and his wife Betty[1] (and was possibly the brother of a younger man named Anthony, who would escape from Montpelier at age 17 in 1786). [2] All were enslaved by Madison’s father, who transferred Gardner to Madison sometime prior to 1787 – a transaction that was confirmed in the elder Madison’s will.[3]

Gardner likely served as Madison’s manservant when Madison went to Philadelphia in March 1780 to attend the Continental Congress. Gardner was first mentioned there in July 1782, when Edmund Randolph suggested to Madison that “Billy can remind you” of the name of a particular enslaved person.[4] By this time the American Revolution was all but won, and liberty was in the air. Gardner apparently felt its influence, according to a letter Madison wrote to his father in 1783:

“On a view of all circumstances I have judged it most prudent not to force Billey back to Va. even if could be done; and have accordingly taken measures for his final separation from me. I am persuaded his mind is too thoroughly tainted to be a fit companion for fellow slaves in Virga. The laws here do not admit of his being sold for more than 7 years. I do not expect to get near the worth of him; but cannot think of punishing him by transportation merely for coveting that liberty for which we have paid the price of so much blood, and have proclaimed so often to be the right, & worthy the pursuit, of every human being.”[5]

Madison did not explain what prompted his urgency to make a decision between selling Gardner and sending him back to Virginia. Possibly Gardner had tried to escape; this would not be the only instance where the Madisons considered selling an enslaved person as a punishment for running away. Madison clearly feared that Gardner, now “tainted” with the desire for liberty, could influence other people enslaved at Montpelier to seek their freedom as well.

Madison seemed to be testing his own commitment to liberty in this letter. He knew the price paid for the colonies’ liberty, he expressed sympathy for Gardner desiring liberty – but he could not bring himself to grant Gardner his freedom outright. The only compromise Madison was willing to make was to accept a lower price for Gardner by selling him into short-term servitude in Philadelphia, rather than selling him at a higher price for lifetime servitude elsewhere.

Madison wrote to his father in September 1783, explaining his decision to sell Billey Gardner into short-term servitude in Philadelphia. “I am persuaded his mind is too thoroughly tainted to be a fit companion for fellow slaves in Virga.” See above for a transcription of the highlighted section. Courtesy of Library of Congress.

Gardner’s Next Chapter

While Madison referred to him only as “Billey,” Gardner began using the full name William Gardner at some point after Madison sold him. (It is possible that he already had the surname Gardner, since the Madisons rarely acknowledged the surnames of enslaved people.) Gardner remained in Philadelphia, where Madison and Jefferson had occasional contact with him. In 1787, a year after Anthony escaped from Montpelier, Madison asked Gardner if he knew whether Anthony was in Philadelphia. (Anthony may have been Gardner’s brother.) Madison wrote his father, “The enquiries which I have at different times made of Billey concerning Anthony satisfy me that he either knows, or will tell [,] nothing of the matter.”[6] A year later, Madison was still speculating on Anthony’s whereabouts, and wrote his father with the suspicion that his current enslaved manservant John had “practised a gross deception on us” by implying that Anthony was in Philadelphia. Madison could see no reason for John to do this “unless it were a spite to Billey, which I fancy he entertained.”[7]

By 1793 Gardner seems to have been working at Mary House’s boarding house in Philadelphia. Madison, now a U. S. Congressman, had ordered plows from a Philadelphia agriculturist. He sought Gardner’s assistance to have the plows sent to him at Montpelier, where he had returned between Congressional sessions. Madison wrote Jefferson in May 1793 regarding plans for shipping the plows: “Billy at Mrs. Houses was charged to look out for the first Vessel that offers. If the Newspapers shd. present one to your eye be so good as to let him have notice [,] that he put them on board.”[8] Madison asked Jefferson to pay for the plows, adding in another letter, “The price will be made known by Billey.”[9] Jefferson replied in July,  “I have never been able to get a sight of Billy till yesterday. He has promised to bring me the bill of your ploughs which shall be paid.”[10] Jefferson noted in his account book on August 24, “pd Billy Gardner for J. Madison 34.70,”[11] and wrote to Madison on August 25, “Billy who is just going on a nautical expedition to Charleston, called on me yesterday to desire I would send you the inclosed account which he said was necessary for you to debit those for whom the articles were.”[12] Gardner’s voyage to Charleston may have been related to duties he carried out as a merchant’s agent.

In addition to Madison calling on William Gardner for this type of odd job, Jefferson paid his wife Henrietta Gardner to do laundry. On January 10, 1791, Jefferson recorded in his account book, “Billy’s wife (Mrs Gardener) begins to wash for me at £20. a year.” The account book records payments made to “Mrs Gardner,” “Henrietta Gardner,” or simply “washerwoman” throughout Jefferson’s term as Washington’s Secretary of State (1791-1793) and his term as Vice President under Adams (from 1797 until early 1800, when the capital – and Jefferson’s laundry – moved from Philadelphia to Washington). On several occasions Billey Gardner collected the payments. The last time was on January 5, 1794, when Jefferson recorded: “pd Billy Gardner in full for washing 10.18.”[13]

In late December 1795, Madison learned dismaying news. He wrote from Philadelphia to his father at Montpelier,

“You may let Old Anthony & Betty know that their son Billey is no more. He went on a voyage to N. Orleans, where being sick as were most of the crew, & very weak under the operation of a dose of physic, he tumbled in a fainty fit overboard & never rose.”[14]

William Gardner’s life as free man had come to an untimely end.

References

[1] James Madison to James Madison Sr., December 27, 1795, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 11057, Montpelier Research Database.

[2] “Twenty Dollars Reward,” Virginia Gazette (Richmond, VA), November 22, 1786, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 42360, Montpelier Research Database.

[3]Madison Sr.’s will, written in 1787, states, “I do hereby confirm to my son James a good right and title to the following slaves which I have heretofore given him to wit, Billy which he has since sold…” James Madison Sr., Will dated September 17, 1787, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 20954, Montpelier Research Database.

[4] Edmund Randolph to James Madison, July 5, 1782, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 10241, Montpelier Research Database.

[5] James Madison to James Madison Sr., September 8, 1783, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 10510, Montpelier Research Database.

[6] James Madison to James Madison Sr., July 28, 1787, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 10780, Montpelier Research Database.

[7] James Madison to James Madison Sr., September 6, 1788, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 7, 2020, MRD-S 21380, Montpelier Research Database.

[8] James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, May 27, 1793, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 10948, Montpelier Research Database.

[9] James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, June 17, 1793, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 10954, Montpelier Research Database.

[10] Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, July 21, 1793, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 10964.

[11] Thomas Jefferson account book 1791-1803, Manuscripts and Archives Division, MS 23168, New York Public Library, New York, New York, accessed July 30, 2020, MRD-S 42851, Montpelier Research Database. This entry can be viewed on the 47th image of the digitized account book (click on the “Digital Assets” button).

[12] Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, August 25, 1793, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 10980, Montpelier Research Database.

[13] Thomas Jefferson account book 1791-1803, Manuscripts and Archives Division, MS 23168, New York Public Library, New York, New York, accessed July 30, 2020, MRD-S 42851, Montpelier Research Database. These entries can be viewed on the 5th and 53rd images of the digitized account book (click on the “Digital Assets” button).

[14] James Madison to James Madison Sr., December 27, 1795, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 11057, Montpelier Research Database.

[15] James Madison to James Madison Sr., December 27, 1795, James Madison Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, accessed August 10, 2020, MRD-S 11057, Montpelier Research Database.

Why did James Madison have a temple in his front yard? He didn’t come here to pray– it wasn’t that kind of temple. Maybe it reminded him of the ancient Roman temple where the “flame of Liberty” was kept burning. But what does “liberty” mean? Does it mean that you can do anything you want? Whenever you want? Of course not! Can you imagine a whole country of people doing whatever they want? Imagine how quickly things would get out of control!

Things were getting out of control after the colonies broke away from the King of England during the American Revolution. The new states didn’t have a good system to govern themselves. They needed a rulebook. They needed a constitution.

Enter James Madison. He read lots of books right here at Montpelier that gave him ideas about the rules that other countries played by, if they didn’t have a king. Madison went to Philadelphia and worked with people from many different states to write a Constitution. His ideas were so helpful that now he is known as the “Father of the Constitution.”

What does the Constitution say about who makes the rules? Instead of a king, it’s “We The People.” The Constitution gives citizens the FREEDOM to govern themselves, to choose their own leaders, and to make their own laws and rules. The Constitution also protects the people’s rights like freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and freedom of the press.

At first the Constitution didn’t allow everyone to participate in government, but over the past 240 years, Americans have made changes — things called Amendments– that let more people have rights, and vote, and run for office. Now “We the People” means just about “All the People!”

The United States Constitution is the modern world’s longest lasting Constitution, and many countries have used it as a model when they wrote their own Constitutions . And just think: it all began right here, on this plantation, Montpelier. That’s how Montpelier made its mark on the world!

Madison was the 4th President, but can you guess six other Presidents who came to Montpelier?

Madison’s best friends were Presidents 3 and 5. Maybe you’ll visit their homes, Monticello and Highland. Who were they? … Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe!

President Number 7 visited Montpelier in 1832. Someone in your family might have his picture right now – he’s on the $20 bill. Who was he? … Andrew Jackson!

Three other Presidents visited Montpelier after Madison’s lifetime. They might be harder to guess, but let’s give it a try.

President Number 19 came in 1878, and gave a speech in praise of Madison and the Constitution. In fact, his last name rhymes with “praise.” Any guesses?… Rutherford B. Hayes!

President Number 26 came to Montpelier on Thanksgiving Day 1907, when the duPonts lived here. A toy bear is named for him. Who was he? … Teddy Roosevelt!

And finally, President Number 41 came here in 1991 for the 200th anniversary of the Bill of Rights. His son was a President too. Can you guess? … George H. W. Bush!

That’s a lot of Presidents who made their mark on Montpelier. And today you’re here! Now you’re part of Montpelier’s story too.

Sometimes the people who lived at Montpelier chose to make their mark, but other times they were forced to make their mark. From the time President Madison’s grandparents came to Montpelier, it was a plantation––a huge farm–where enslaved people of African descent grew crops like tobacco, wheat, and corn and did many other jobs to make money for the Madison family. People who were enslaved had many skills and worked hard, but they didn’t get the benefit.

It was not only enslaved adults that labored for the Madisons, but enslaved children were also forced to do a lot of different tasks such as gathering firewood, helping in the kitchens, hauling water, cleaning stables, and… making bricks. Look at this huge house in front of you— each and every one of these bricks was made one at a time, by hand. On plantations, brick-making was often a task given to enslaved children. They pressed wet clay into rectangular-shaped molds. Then the bricks were left in the sun to “bake,” and once enough bricks were made they “fired” them to harden them. Have you ever pressed your fingers into wet clay? What happens when you do that? Your fingerprints make a mark. That’s exactly what happened here when enslaved people were making bricks to build this house. As you walk around the house, see if you can find any fingerprints in the bricks. These fingerprints remind us that nearly 300 enslaved people, of all ages, made their mark on Montpelier.

Since enslaved adults and children did most of the work at Montpelier, they didn’t have a lot of time for fun. What did they do when they did have a little time to themselves? Archaeologists found artifacts – marbles, doll parts, and toy wagon wheels – that tell us that enslaved children sometimes played with toys. Other artifacts, like musical instruments called jaw harps, tell us that enslaved people made music. Many of the activities that enslaved people probably enjoyed, like storytelling or dancing, didn’t leave artifacts in the ground.

The Madisons had much more time to themselves. Written records describe one of their favorite ways to have fun: parties.

Dolley Madison wrote about a barbecue picnic that she and James hosted on the 4th of July 1816. Ninety guests sat at tables set up on the lawn by enslaved people. Enslaved waiters served them roasted meats and punch, and most likely, fresh vegetables from the garden.

We don’t have a written account of what enslaved people had to do to get ready for that party, but historians found one written account that gives us a clue. In 1824, the famous General Lafayette visited Montpelier. A young enslaved maid named Ailsey Payne was there. Years later, she gave a newspaper reporter her eyewitness account. She saw so many horse drawn carriages she could hardly count them. Young enslaved men rode and led the horses. Enslaved people stored all kinds of food and meat in the icehouse. Ailsey Payne helped clean every inch of the House and shined all of the glass, silver, and china.

Ailsey Payne left her mark on Montpelier by telling her story! Will you tell someone about your visit?

Have you ever been asked to “sweep the floor?” Maybe it’s your chore to sweep up the crumbs that fall to the floor after dinner (if you don’t have a dog to do it for you). But have you ever been asked to “sweep the yard?” Archaeologists at Montpelier believe that enslaved people who lived here did just that! They used brooms to sweep away all of the grass and weeds. The ground would have been like a smooth, hard, clay floor.

Sweeping the yard cut down pests and unwanted creatures like ticks, mice, and snakes. It was a natural way of getting rid of pests that ruined food or caused disease.

The building in front of you was once a kitchen. Enslaved cooks labored here from long before sunup to long after sundown to prepare meals for the Madison family and their guests. They could build their hot cooking fires outside in the swept yard so that the work was more tolerable.

Except for the two smokehouses, the buildings here were homes for enslaved families who mostly worked inside the Madisons’ House. Their homes could be crowded, dark, and unbearably hot in summer. Having a smooth, swept yard allowed them to move many of their indoor activities outdoors. Imagine how busy this place would have been!

The ancestors of enslaved people at Montpelier had also swept their yards in Africa.They passed their wisdom along to their descendants. This is just one example of how enslaved people and their ancestors left their mark on Montpelier.

Do you have pets?

The Madisons had a pet parrot named Polly, but most of the animals at Montpelier weren’t pets – they were working animals. Horses pulled plows that made the ground ready for planting wheat or corn. Horses also pulled wagons, loaded with barrels of Montpelier tobaccos or wheat flour, to market in Fredericksburg and Richmond, and brought supplies back. Aleck was an enslaved wagoner who drove and cared for the horses. On one trip to Fredericksburg, Aleck had to borrow 50 cents to go to the blacksmith for new horseshoes so the horses could make the trip back.

Besides horses, there were cows and sheep and pigs at Montpelier. Some animals were raised for food. Sheep were also raised for their woolly coats. Enslaved women spun the wool into yarn or thread, and weavers like Reuben, Amy, and Harriet wove it into cloth.

James Madison wanted to improve the American breeds of cows and sheep. He bought some Merino sheep, because their wool was so good. A friend gave him some Devon calves as a gift, because they were a better breed of cows.

Animals made their mark at Montpelier – and so did the people who worked with them and took care of them!

How do we know what we know about the past? We can’t ask the people who used to live here— they’re long gone. We have to piece together clues from “primary sources”— letters, journals, diaries, paintings, and newspapers. History is kind of like a giant jigsaw puzzle— as we put the pieces together, a picture of the past emerges!

The very first people to live at Montpelier were Native Americans, or Indigenous people. They didn’t leave written records behind, but they did leave artifacts– objects that were made or shaped or used with their own hands. People who study artifacts are called archaeologists. Montpelier’s archaeologists have discovered artifacts that are about 2000 years old. That tells us that Indigenous people were here, thousands of years before the Madisons, or enslaved people, ever set foot on this land.

The Manahoac tribe were the native people living on this land just before the Madisons arrived here. Artifacts show us that the Manahoac made their mark by making their homes here for periods of time. The artifacts found near President Madison’s house, and near his grandparent’s house at Mount Pleasant–objects such as ceramics, stone tools, and projectile points— show us that the Manahoac thought these were good places to live too.

Did you know that there are descendants of Manahoac people living and making their mark in Virginia today? They are now part of the Monocan tribe, one of the 7 Federally recognized tribes in Virginia.

Some of the people that left their mark on Montpelier are buried here in the Madison family Cemetery. Can you guess which of these gravestones marks the final resting place of James Madison? It’s the tallest monument, and it’s called an obelisk. Today it’s easy to spot Madison’s grave, but if you visited Montpelier in the first 20 years after his death, you wouldn’t know where he was buried unless you were a member of his family. James Madison passed away on June 28, 1836, and two days later, he was buried here, in an unmarked grave.

Why would a president of the United States be buried in an unmarked grave? Today we usually place a marker at the head of a grave, but in the 1700s and 1800s people didn’t always do that, especially in a family cemetery where everyone knew where their family members were buried. If you count the gravestones you’ll find that there are about 30, but we know there are about 100 Madison family members buried here.

It wasn’t until 20 years later that people, outside of the Madison family, decided to place the large gravestone to honor the “Father of the Constitution.” Now, ready for a creepy story? Before placing the gravestone, a deep foundation had to be dug to a depth below James Madison’s coffin. “The boards placed above the coffin had decayed…and the coffin lid was slightly out of place…” so the men digging the foundation opened the coffin lid and “looked in upon the remains…” of James Madison!

Some people made their mark at Montpelier by leaving it.

Anthony was just 17 years old when he decided to make his escape from Montpelier. He had been enslaved here all his life, working in the Madisons’ house, and he was ready to take a big risk for freedom. James Madison’s father placed an ad in the newspaper to say that Anthony had escaped. The ad said that Anthony had light hair and gray eyes, and it described his coats, pants, striped overalls, hat, and buckled shoes. The ad offered a reward for capturing Anthony.

Anthony didn’t want to be caught, so he told people his name was Robert Jones. But one year after he escaped, Anthony was found, about 70 miles from Montpelier. He told the men who captured him that he had traveled to port cities in Virginia, to Philadelphia, and even the West Indies.

But the very next day, Anthony escaped again. He managed to get papers that said he was a free man named Billy Willis. There was a rumor that he was heading to Philadelphia. The Madisons never heard from him again. What happened next is a mystery. But Anthony left his mark by taking a big risk for freedom.

The duPont Family bought Montpelier in 1901 and made many changes to the House and the property. Did you see the racetrack on your way in today? You might even have seen some horses!

Marion duPont Scott loved horses and horse racing. She helped make Montpelier one of the most important horse training centers in America. When three of her favorite horses passed away, she had them buried here and put up these markers to remember them.

Perhaps her favorite horse was Battleship. He was so small that people called him the “American Pony,” but Marion DuPont Scott knew that he had big talent. She sent him across the ocean to race in the British “Grand National,” an important steeplechase race that is still run today. The race is over 4 miles long, and the horses have to jump 30 fences! Many people thought that a small horse like Battleship couldn’t possibly win, but in 1938 he surprised them all! To this day, he is still the smallest horse ever to win the British Grand National. You might say that Battleship left his hoofprints on the history of horse racing!

Marion duPont Scott left another mark on Montpelier. She wanted to share Montpelier and its story with everyone. Thanks to her, you can visit Montpelier today!

Lots of people made their mark on Montpelier. But there are two people you might already know: James and Dolley Madison!

How did James Madison make his mark? He was a Virginia lawmaker, a US Congressman, the Secretary of State, and our 4th President! (Not all at the same time.)

But most importantly, Madison was “Father of the Constitution” and “Architect of the Bill of Rights.” He didn’t write those documents all by himself, but he shared lots of good ideas that still help us govern our country. Madison got his ideas from reading books right here at Montpelier, and he made notes to take to the Constitutional Convention.

Madison could spend so much time in public service because his family had money from owning this plantation. The Madisons enslaved people who grew crops and tended animals. The enslaved people didn’t have much choice about being here, but their hard work made Madison’s career possible. The enslaved people made their mark as the “invisible Founders” of our country.

Dolley Madison made her mark too. James was shy and quiet, but Dolley liked to bring people together for dinners and parties, especially in Washington, DC. That made it easier for James to connect with other people in government.

As you explore Montpelier, see what else you’ll find out about people making their mark!

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